SEN Schools Children (v) Visual Impairment in Children

Visual impairment (VI) in children refers to a significant limitation in vision that cannot be fully corrected with standard glasses, contact lenses, medication, or surgery. It ranges from partial sight to total blindness and affects a child’s development, learning, and social participation. Understanding visual impairment as a disability within pediatric and educational contexts requires a multidisciplinary perspective incorporating medical, psychological, and educational frameworks.

1. Definition and Classification of Visual Impairment

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), visual impairment is categorized based on visual acuity and the field of vision:

  • Moderate visual impairment: Visual acuity worse than 6/18 but equal to or better than 6/60.

  • Severe visual impairment: Visual acuity worse than 6/60 but equal to or better than 3/60.

  • Blindness: Visual acuity worse than 3/60 or a visual field of less than 10 degrees in the better eye with the best possible correction (WHO, 2019).

In children, the term "low vision" is often used when visual function is impaired even with optimal correction, but the child can still use their vision for planning and execution of tasks (Corn & Koenig, 2002).

2. Causes of Visual Impairment in Children

Visual impairment in children may be congenital (present at birth) or acquired later. Common causes include:

  • Congenital causes:

    • Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP)

    • Congenital cataracts

    • Congenital glaucoma

    • Optic nerve hypoplasia

    • Albinism

    • Congenital infections (e.g., rubella, toxoplasmosis)

  • Acquired causes:

    • Traumatic eye injuries

    • Infections such as measles

    • Nutritional deficiencies (e.g., vitamin A deficiency)

    • Brain injury leading to cortical visual impairment (CVI)

(Gilbert & Foster, 2001; American Academy of Ophthalmology, 2022)

3. Functional Impacts on Development

Visual impairment affects multiple domains of a child's development:

  • Cognitive development: Vision is crucial for spatial reasoning, imitation, and incidental learning. Children with VI may show delays in concept formation and abstract thinking (Hatton, Ivy, & Boyer, 2013).

  • Language development: While auditory skills may compensate to some extent, early language acquisition may be delayed, especially if social interactions are limited.

  • Motor skills: Delays in crawling, walking, and coordinated movement are common due to limited visual cues (Houwen, van der Putten, & Vlaskamp, 2014).

  • Social development: Difficulty with non-verbal communication (e.g., facial expressions, gestures) can hinder social bonding and peer interaction (Ferrell, 2007).

4. Educational Implications

Children with visual impairments require specialized educational support:

  • Braille literacy: For those with little or no usable vision, Braille is a critical tool for literacy (Koenig & Holbrook, 2000).

  • Assistive technology: Tools such as screen readers, magnifiers, and audio books enhance access to academic content.

  • Orientation and mobility training: Helps children navigate their environment independently.

  • Inclusive education practices: Mainstreaming children with VI requires accessible learning materials, trained staff, and individualized education plans (IEPs) (UNESCO, 2009).

Educators must employ multisensory instructional strategies and ensure curriculum accessibility, adjusting pacing and methods of content delivery (Allman & Lewis, 2014).

5. Psychosocial and Emotional Considerations

Visual impairment can impact a child's emotional well-being:

  • Risk of low self-esteem, social isolation, and anxiety due to difficulties in social interaction and peer comparison (Emerson & Hatton, 2007).

  • Parental support and early intervention services play a pivotal role in mitigating these effects (Tadic, Pring, & Dale, 2009).

  • Support groups and counseling services are essential components of a holistic support system.

6. Global and Legal Frameworks

International frameworks emphasize the rights of children with disabilities:

  • UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) promotes the full inclusion of children with disabilities, including those with visual impairments, in education and community life.

  • The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in the U.S. mandates free appropriate public education for all children with disabilities, including specific provisions for children with VI.

  • UNESCO’s Salamanca Statement (1994) advocates inclusive education as a fundamental human right.

7. Conclusion

Visual impairment in children constitutes a significant developmental and educational challenge. It requires a collaborative approach among healthcare providers, educators, psychologists, families, and policy makers to ensure inclusive participation and optimal quality of life. Early identification, intervention, and adaptive strategies are crucial to mitigate the impact of the disability and enable full integration into educational and social environments.

References

  • Allman, C. B., & Lewis, S. (2014). ECC essentials: Teaching the expanded core curriculum to students with visual impairments. AFB Press.

  • American Academy of Ophthalmology. (2022). Pediatric Eye Evaluations.

  • Corn, A. L., & Koenig, A. J. (2002). Foundations of low vision: Clinical and functional perspectives. AFB Press.

  • Emerson, E., & Hatton, C. (2007). Mental health of children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities in Britain. British Journal of Psychiatry, 191(6), 493-499.

  • Ferrell, K. A. (2007). Growth and development of young children: A visual impairment perspective. In M. C. Holbrook & A. J. Koenig (Eds.), Foundations of education for children with visual impairments.

  • Gilbert, C., & Foster, A. (2001). Childhood blindness in the context of VISION 2020—the right to sight. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 79(3), 227-232.

  • Hatton, D. D., Ivy, S. E., & Boyer, C. (2013). Developmental outcomes in children with visual impairments. In J. M. Sacks & R. L. Silberman (Eds.), Educating students who have visual impairments with other disabilities.

  • Houwen, S., van der Putten, A. A. J., & Vlaskamp, C. (2014). Motor development of children with visual impairments. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(2), 343–352.

  • Koenig, A. J., & Holbrook, M. C. (2000). Foundations of Education: Instructional strategies for teaching children and youths with visual impairments. AFB Press.

  • Tadic, V., Pring, L., & Dale, N. (2009). Attitudes of blind and partially sighted children to sight loss. Child: Care, Health and Development, 35(4), 541-549.

  • UNESCO. (2009). Policy Guidelines on Inclusion in Education.

  • WHO. (2019). World report on vision.

SEN Schools Children (iv) Hearing Impairment in Children

Hearing Impairment in Children 

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1. Definition

Hearing impairment in children refers to a partial or total inability to hear sounds in one or both ears, and it can significantly impact a child’s communication, language development, academic achievement, and social-emotional well-being (World Health Organization [WHO], 2021). The term encompasses both hard of hearing (mild to moderate hearing loss) and deafness (severe to profound hearing loss).

According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), hearing impairment is defined as:

"An impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance" (U.S. Department of Education, 2004, IDEA, Sec. 300.8(c)(5)).

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2. Classification of Hearing Impairment

Hearing impairments are commonly classified based on:

a. Degree of Loss

  • Mild (26–40 dB)
  • Moderate (41–55 dB)
  • Moderately Severe (56–70 dB)
  • Severe (71–90 dB)
  • Profound (91 dB or more)
(Source: American Speech-Language-Hearing Association [ASHA], 2020)

b. Type of Loss

  • Conductive Hearing Loss: Caused by problems in the outer or middle ear (e.g., fluid, ear infections, structural abnormalities).
  • Sensorineural Hearing Loss: Damage to the inner ear (cochlea) or auditory nerve.
  • Mixed Hearing Loss: A combination of conductive and sensorineural loss.

c. Onset

  • Congenital: Present at birth.
  • Acquired: Occurs after birth due to illness, trauma, or environmental factors.

d. Laterality

Unilateral: In one ear.

Bilateral: In both ears.

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3. Causes of Hearing Impairment

Hearing impairment in children can be attributed to a variety of factors:

  • Genetic causes (e.g., autosomal recessive or dominant conditions)
  • Prenatal infections (e.g., rubella, cytomegalovirus)
  • Birth complications (e.g., hypoxia, low birth weight)
  • Ototoxic medications
  • Chronic ear infections (otitis media)
  • Environmental noise exposure
  • Trauma or injury (Wilson et al., 2017; WHO, 2021)

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4. Impact on Child Development

Hearing impairment has a profound effect on several domains of development:

a. Language and Communication

Children with hearing impairments often face delays in receptive and expressive language, which can hinder reading and writing skills (Moeller, 2000). Language acquisition is especially affected if the impairment is not detected and managed early.

b. Cognitive Development

Limited auditory input can impact cognitive processing skills, particularly those related to auditory memory and executive function (Kronenberger et al., 2014).

c. Academic Performance

Children with hearing loss are at a higher risk of academic underachievement, particularly in literacy and numeracy (Punch & Hyde, 2011). They often require individualized educational support and assistive technologies.

d. Social and Emotional Development

Hearing-impaired children may experience isolation, frustration, and difficulty in peer relationships, contributing to lower self-esteem and higher levels of anxiety or depression (Theunissen et al., 2014).

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5. Interventions and Support

Effective strategies for supporting children with hearing impairment include:

  • Early detection and intervention programs (e.g., newborn hearing screening)
  • Hearing aids and cochlear implants
  • Speech and language therapy
  • Use of sign language or total communication approaches
  • Educational accommodations (e.g., FM systems, special education services)
  • Family counseling and support (Early Hearing Detection and Intervention [EHDI], 2020)

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6. Conclusion

Hearing impairment is a complex and multifaceted disability that, if unaddressed, can have profound developmental consequences for children. Early identification, medical and educational intervention, and inclusive practices are critical to mitigating its effects and ensuring the holistic development of the child.

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References

  • American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2020). Degree of hearing loss. https://www.asha.org
  • Kronenberger, W. G., Pisoni, D. B., Henning, S. C., & Colson, B. G. (2014). Executive functioning skills in long-term users of cochlear implants: A case for auditory neurocognitive connections. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 57(2), 494–509.
  • Moeller, M. P. (2000). Early intervention and language development in children who are deaf and hard of hearing. Pediatrics, 106(3), e43.
  • Punch, R., & Hyde, M. (2011). Social participation of children and adolescents with cochlear implants: A qualitative analysis of parent, teacher, and child interviews. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 16(4), 474–493.
  • Theunissen, S. C., Rieffe, C., Netten, A. P., Soede, W., Kouwenberg, M., De Raeve, L., ... & Frijns, J. H. (2014). Self-esteem in hearing-impaired children: The influence of communication, education, and audiological characteristics. PLOS ONE, 9(4), e94521.
  • U.S. Department of Education. (2004). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). https://sites.ed.gov/idea
  • Wilson, B. S., Tucci, D. L., Merson, M. H., & O'Donoghue, G. M. (2017). Global hearing health care: New findings and perspectives. The Lancet, 390(10111), 2503–2515.
  • World Health Organization. (2021). World Report on Hearing. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/world-report-on-hearing
  • Early Hearing Detection and Intervention (EHDI). (2020). About the EHDI program. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/hearingloss/ehdi-programs.html

SEN Schools Children (iii) Mental Retardation (Now termed "Intellectual Disability")

(iii) Mental Retardation (Now termed "Intellectual Disability")

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Definition:

“Mental retardation,” now more accurately termed intellectual disability (ID) according to the DSM-5 and WHO ICD-11, refers to significantly below-average intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior that originates during the developmental period (before age 18).

American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD, 2010):

“Intellectual disability is characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning (reasoning, learning, problem-solving) and in adaptive behavior, which covers a range of everyday social and practical skills.”

"Significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills. This disability originates before the age of 18."

(AAIDD, 2010; APA, 2013)

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1. Core Characteristics of Intellectual Disability

a. Intellectual Functioning Deficits

  • IQ score typically below 70–75.
  • Difficulty with reasoning, problem-solving, planning, abstract thinking, judgment, and learning from experience.

Schalock et al., (2010) emphasizes that intellectual functioning alone is not sufficient to diagnose ID—adaptive behavior must also be considered.

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b. Deficits in Adaptive Behavior

  • Conceptual skills (e.g., language, literacy, money, self-direction)
  • Social skills (e.g., interpersonal skills, social responsibility, self-esteem)
  • Practical skills (e.g., personal care, occupational skills, travel/transportation)

Sparrow, Cicchetti & Balla, (2005) authors of the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, widely used to assess adaptive behavior.

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c. Onset during the Developmental Period

Symptoms must appear before the age of 18 to distinguish ID from adult-onset conditions like dementia.

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2. Causes of Intellectual Disability

a. Genetic Conditions

Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and Phenylketonuria (PKU) are common causes.

Roizen & Patterson, (2003) discuss the genetic and chromosomal basis of developmental delays in children.

b. Prenatal Factors

  • Maternal infections (e.g., rubella, cytomegalovirus)
  • Substance use (alcohol, drugs)
  • Malnutrition or exposure to toxins (e.g., lead)

c. Perinatal and Postnatal Causes

  • Complications during birth (e.g., oxygen deprivation)
  • Traumatic brain injury
  • Infections like meningitis or encephalitis

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3. Levels of Intellectual Disability

  • Level Mild
  • IQ  Range     50–69
  • Description  Can achieve academic skills up to ~6th grade. May live independently with support.

  • Level   Moderate
  • IQ Range     35–49
  • Description Limited academic progress. May require supervised living.

  • Level   Severe
  • IQ Range     20–34
  • Description   Little or no communicative speech. Needs constant supervision.

  • Level   Profound
  • IQ Range     Below 20
  • Description Extensive support in all life areas. Often co-occurring physical disabilities.

APA, DSM-5, (2013) provides this classification for diagnostic purposes.

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4. Diagnosis and Assessment Tools

  • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V)
  • Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales
  • Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales
  • Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development

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5. Educational and Social Implications

Children with intellectual disabilities often:

  • Face difficulties in academic achievement
  • May struggle with communication and social relationships
  • Are at higher risk of being excluded or bullied
  • Benefit from Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) and inclusive education strategies

UNESCO (2009) promotes inclusive education for children with disabilities to ensure equity and participation.

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6. Support Strategies

  • Special education tailored to cognitive level
  • Speech and occupational therapy
  • Behavioral interventions
  • Life skills training
  • Parental and caregiver support

World Health Organization (WHO, 2022) advocates for community-based rehabilitation and family-centered approaches for better outcomes.

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7. Stigma and Societal Challenges

  • Children with ID often face social stigma, marginalization, and lack of access to services—especially in low-income settings.
  • Advocacy and public awareness are key to improving quality of life.

UNICEF (2013) notes that over 90% of children with disabilities in developing countries do not attend school.

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8. Legal and Policy Frameworks

  • Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, USA)
  • UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD)
  • The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act (India, 2016)

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Conclusion

Intellectual disability is a developmental condition marked by significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. It affects individuals in diverse ways and necessitates a combination of medical, educational, and psychosocial support systems. Shifting from the outdated term “mental retardation” to “intellectual disability” reflects a more humane, respectful, and inclusive approach in both academic and clinical settings.

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References:

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.).
  • Schalock, R. L., et al. (2010). Intellectual Disability: Definition, Classification, and Systems of Supports. AAIDD.
  • Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D. V., & Balla, D. A. (2005). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (2nd ed.). Pearson Assessments.
  • Roizen, N. J., & Patterson, D. (2003). Down's syndrome. The Lancet, 361(9365), 1281-1289.
  • World Health Organization. (2022). World Report on Disability.
  • UNESCO. (2009). Inclusive Education: The Way of the Future.
  • UNICEF. (2013). Children and Young People with Disabilities Fact Sheet.

SEN Schools Children (ii) Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

(ii) Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
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1. Definition
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities.

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), ASD is diagnosed based on:
Social-emotional reciprocity challenges
Nonverbal communicative difficulties
Difficulty developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships
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2. Prevalence
As of the latest data from the CDC (2023), about 1 in 36 children in the United States is identified with ASD. Boys are about four times more likely than girls to be diagnosed with autism.
(Source: CDC, 2023, Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network)
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3.Causes
ASD is thought to result from complex interactions between genetic and environmental factors, such as:
Genetic mutations (e.g., in genes like SHANK3, MECP2)
Advanced parental age
Prenatal exposure to toxins or infections
Low birth weight or complications during birth
(Source: Ramaswami & Geschwind, 2018. "Genetics of autism spectrum disorder." Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 147)
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4.Key Characteristics
Communication Difficulties
Delayed speech or language development
Echolalia (repeating words/phrases)
Atypical tone or rhythm in speech
Social Impairments
Difficulty understanding social cues (e.g., facial expressions)
Limited eye contact
Preference for solitary activities
Repetitive Behaviors and Interests
Repetitive movements (e.g., hand-flapping, rocking)
Insistence on sameness or routines
Intense focus on specific interests
Sensory Sensitivities
Hyper- or hypo-sensitivity to sound, touch, light, or smell
(Source: Lord et al., 2020. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology)
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5.Diagnosis typically involves:
Developmental screening (by pediatricians at 18 and 24 months)
Comprehensive diagnostic evaluation by a team of professionals
Tools like Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) and Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R)
(Source: Volkmar et al., 2014. Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders)
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6.Interventions and Supports

There is no cure for autism, but early and sustained interventions can significantly improve outcomes. Evidence-based strategies include:
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): Behavioral therapy to improve communication and reduce problem behaviors
Speech and Language Therapy: For communication development
Occupational Therapy: For sensory and motor skills
Special Education Services: Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) under IDEA
Social Skills Training
(Source: Schreibman et al., 2015. "Comprehensive intervention models for children with autism spectrum disorder." Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology)
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Conclusion
Disabilities in children encompass a diverse range of conditions that impact their development and ability to function in typical settings. Autism Spectrum Disorder is a prominent and complex neurodevelopmental disorder that requires a multifaceted approach involving education, healthcare, and family support. Understanding the nuances of ASD helps foster inclusive practices and appropriate intervention strategies.
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References
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.).
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2023). Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html
  • Lord, C., Elsabbagh, M., Baird, G., & Veenstra-VanderWeele, J. (2020). Autism spectrum disorder. The Lancet, 392(10146), 508-520.
  • Ramaswami, G., & Geschwind, D. H. (2018). Genetics of autism spectrum disorder. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 147, 321–329.
  • Schreibman, L., Dawson, G., Stahmer, A. C., Landa, R., Rogers, S. J., McGee, G. G., ... & Halladay, A. (2015). Comprehensive intervention models for children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44(5), 1-13.
  • U.S. Department of Education. (2004). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
  • Volkmar, F. R., Paul, R., Rogers, S. J., & Pelphrey, K. A. (2014). Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders.

SEN Schools Children (i) Learning Disabilities

(i) Learning Disabilities 
1. Definition of Learning Disabilities
A learning disability (LD) is a neurologically-based processing problem that interferes with the ability to learn basic skills such as reading, writing, or math. It can also affect higher-level skills such as organization, time planning, abstract reasoning, and attention.
According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in the U.S., a learning disability is defined as:
“A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations” (IDEA, 2004).
2. Types of Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities vary in type and severity. Here are the most common ones:

a. Dyslexia (Reading Disability)
Definition: Affects reading accuracy, fluency, decoding, and comprehension.
Symptoms: Difficulty recognizing words, poor spelling, slow reading.
Reference: Shaywitz, S. E. (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia. Knopf.

b. Dyscalculia (Math Disability)
Definition: Difficulty understanding numbers, learning math facts, and performing calculations.
Symptoms: Trouble with number sense, memorizing math facts, and sequencing.
Reference: Butterworth, B. (2005). The development of arithmetical abilities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(1), 3-18.

c. Dysgraphia (Writing Disability)
Definition: Affects handwriting, spelling, and organizing written expression.
Symptoms: Illegible handwriting, poor spelling, difficulty with grammar and sentence structure.
Reference: Richards, R. G. (1999). The writing dilemma: Diagnosis and remediation of writing problems. Perspectives, 25(3), 15-21.

d. Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)
Definition: Difficulty processing auditory information despite normal hearing.
Symptoms: Trouble following verbal directions, distinguishing sounds, or understanding in noisy environments.
Reference: Chermak, G. D., & Musiek, F. E. (1997). Central auditory processing disorders: New perspectives. Singular Publishing Group.

e. Visual Processing Disorder
Definition: Difficulty interpreting visual information.
Symptoms: Issues with spatial relationships, hand-eye coordination, or visual sequencing.
Reference: Scheiman, M. (2002). Understanding and managing visual dysfunctions. Mosby.
3. Causes of Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities are neurological in origin, but various factors can contribute:
Genetic factors: Family history increases risk.
Prenatal influences: Exposure to alcohol, drugs, or infection in utero.
Birth trauma or low birth weight.
Environmental factors: Lead exposure, malnutrition.
Brain development issues: Structural differences in regions related to language and processing (Shaywitz, 2003).
4. Identification and Diagnosis
LDs are typically diagnosed through:
Psychoeducational assessments (IQ and achievement testing).
Observations and teacher reports.
Standardized tests (e.g., Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement, WISC-V).
The DSM-5 (APA, 2013) categorizes learning disorders under “Specific Learning Disorders,” with specifiers for reading, written expression, and mathematics.
5. Impact of Learning Disabilities
Academic Impact
Poor performance in school subjects.
Increased risk of school dropout.
Psychosocial Impact
Low self-esteem, anxiety, and depression.
Social difficulties due to frustration or peer comparison.

Behavioral Consequences
Avoidance behaviors.
Disruptive classroom behavior.
Research shows that students with LDs are at increased risk for emotional and behavioral problems, particularly when their needs are unmet in educational settings (Wagner et al., 2003).
6. Intervention and Support Strategies
Educational Interventions
Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) or 504 Plans.
Specialized instruction (e.g., Orton-Gillingham for dyslexia).
Assistive technology (e.g., text-to-speech software).

Classroom Accommodations
Extra time on tests.
Preferential seating.
Multi-sensory instruction.
Parental and Psychosocial Support
Counseling and self-advocacy training.
Family education on LDs.
7. Conclusion
Learning disabilities are complex, often lifelong conditions that affect how children receive and process information. Early diagnosis and targeted support are crucial in helping affected children thrive academically, socially, and emotionally.
Key References
  • Shaywitz, S. E. (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia. Knopf.
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).
  • Butterworth, B. (2005). The development of arithmetical abilities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(1), 3-18.
  • Wagner, M., et al. (2003). The Achievements of Youth with Disabilities During Secondary School. National Center for Special Education Research.
  • IDEA (2004). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. U.S. Department of Education.

leadership.mgt

SEN Schools Children (i) Learning Disabilities 





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LESSONS OF EMPATHY LEADERSHIP from :  Nobody's Boy
Malot, H. (1878). Sans Famille. Paris: Dentu.Original French edition.
Malot, H. (1900). Nobody's Boy (Translated by Florence Crewe-Jones). London: J.M. Dent & Sons



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LESSONS OF EMPATHY LEADERSHIP from : Little Princess 
Burnett, F.H. (1905). A Little Princess: Being the Whole Story of Sara Crewe Now Told for the First Time. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.





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