(i) Learning Disabilities
1. Definition of Learning Disabilities
A learning disability (LD) is a neurologically-based processing problem that interferes with the ability to learn basic skills such as reading, writing, or math. It can also affect higher-level skills such as organization, time planning, abstract reasoning, and attention.
According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in the U.S., a learning disability is defined as:
“A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations” (IDEA, 2004).
2. Types of Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities vary in type and severity. Here are the most common ones:
a. Dyslexia (Reading Disability)
Definition: Affects reading accuracy, fluency, decoding, and comprehension.
Symptoms: Difficulty recognizing words, poor spelling, slow reading.
Reference: Shaywitz, S. E. (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia. Knopf.
b. Dyscalculia (Math Disability)
Definition: Difficulty understanding numbers, learning math facts, and performing calculations.
Symptoms: Trouble with number sense, memorizing math facts, and sequencing.
Reference: Butterworth, B. (2005). The development of arithmetical abilities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(1), 3-18.
c. Dysgraphia (Writing Disability)
Definition: Affects handwriting, spelling, and organizing written expression.
Symptoms: Illegible handwriting, poor spelling, difficulty with grammar and sentence structure.
Reference: Richards, R. G. (1999). The writing dilemma: Diagnosis and remediation of writing problems. Perspectives, 25(3), 15-21.
d. Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)
Definition: Difficulty processing auditory information despite normal hearing.
Symptoms: Trouble following verbal directions, distinguishing sounds, or understanding in noisy environments.
Reference: Chermak, G. D., & Musiek, F. E. (1997). Central auditory processing disorders: New perspectives. Singular Publishing Group.
e. Visual Processing Disorder
Definition: Difficulty interpreting visual information.
Symptoms: Issues with spatial relationships, hand-eye coordination, or visual sequencing.
Reference: Scheiman, M. (2002). Understanding and managing visual dysfunctions. Mosby.
3. Causes of Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities are neurological in origin, but various factors can contribute:
Genetic factors: Family history increases risk.
Prenatal influences: Exposure to alcohol, drugs, or infection in utero.
Birth trauma or low birth weight.
Environmental factors: Lead exposure, malnutrition.
Brain development issues: Structural differences in regions related to language and processing (Shaywitz, 2003).
4. Identification and Diagnosis
LDs are typically diagnosed through:
Psychoeducational assessments (IQ and achievement testing).
Observations and teacher reports.
Standardized tests (e.g., Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement, WISC-V).
The DSM-5 (APA, 2013) categorizes learning disorders under “Specific Learning Disorders,” with specifiers for reading, written expression, and mathematics.
5. Impact of Learning Disabilities
Academic Impact
Poor performance in school subjects.
Increased risk of school dropout.
Psychosocial Impact
Low self-esteem, anxiety, and depression.
Social difficulties due to frustration or peer comparison.
Behavioral Consequences
Avoidance behaviors.
Disruptive classroom behavior.
Research shows that students with LDs are at increased risk for emotional and behavioral problems, particularly when their needs are unmet in educational settings (Wagner et al., 2003).
6. Intervention and Support Strategies
Educational Interventions
Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) or 504 Plans.
Specialized instruction (e.g., Orton-Gillingham for dyslexia).
Assistive technology (e.g., text-to-speech software).
Classroom Accommodations
Extra time on tests.
Preferential seating.
Multi-sensory instruction.
Parental and Psychosocial Support
Counseling and self-advocacy training.
Family education on LDs.
7. Conclusion
Learning disabilities are complex, often lifelong conditions that affect how children receive and process information. Early diagnosis and targeted support are crucial in helping affected children thrive academically, socially, and emotionally.
Key References
- Shaywitz, S. E. (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia. Knopf.
- American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).
- Butterworth, B. (2005). The development of arithmetical abilities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(1), 3-18.
- Wagner, M., et al. (2003). The Achievements of Youth with Disabilities During Secondary School. National Center for Special Education Research.
- IDEA (2004). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. U.S. Department of Education.
