What is Islamophobia ? 23/08/25

Definition

Islamophobia broadly refers to the fear, prejudice, hatred or discrimination directed against Islam or Muslims (Allen, 2010). The term gained prominence in the 1990s, especially after the Runnymede Trust’s report (1997) in the UK, which provided one of the most influential early definitions. The report defined Islamophobia as “unfounded hostility towards Islam,” which also results in disadvantaging and discriminating against Muslims in public and private life (Runnymede Trust, 1997).

Core Characteristics

Islamophobia can manifest in both overt and subtle forms:

  • Stereotyping: portraying Muslims as monolithic, irrational, violent, or backward (Saeed, 2007).

  • Exclusion and discrimination: in employment, education, housing, and public services (Esposito & Kalin, 2011).

  • Cultural racism: where Muslim identity is racialised, even though Islam is a religion and not an ethnicity (Meer & Modood, 2009).

  • Hate crimes and violence: targeting individuals, mosques, or Islamic organisations (Poynting & Mason, 2007).

Islamophobia in Global Context

While anti-Muslim sentiment has existed historically, its intensity increased after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Muslims were often associated with terrorism, extremism, and security threats, reinforcing Islamophobic discourses across Western nations (Cesari, 2004). In Europe, policies on immigration and integration often place Muslims under scrutiny, while in the United States, the “war on terror” further entrenched suspicion toward Muslim communities (Gottschalk & Greenberg, 2008).

Theoretical Perspectives

Scholars view Islamophobia through different theoretical lenses:

  • Orientalism: Said (1978) argued that Western representations of Islam are shaped by colonial and orientalist stereotypes, constructing Muslims as the “Other.”

  • Racism without race: Modood (1997) describes Islamophobia as a form of cultural racism, where discrimination is based on perceived cultural or religious inferiority rather than biological difference.

  • Intersectionality: Muslim women often experience Islamophobia in gendered ways, particularly through attacks on the wearing of the hijab (Allen, 2010; Afshar, Aitken & Franks, 2005).

Consequences of Islamophobia

Islamophobia has both individual and societal consequences:

  • Psychological effects: fear, alienation, and diminished sense of belonging among Muslim communities (Imtoual, 2006).

  • Social exclusion: Muslims may face barriers to education, employment, and civic participation (Meer & Modood, 2009).

  • Radicalisation risk: marginalisation can foster feelings of resentment, which extremist groups may exploit (Esposito & Kalin, 2011).

Critiques of the Concept

Some scholars critique the term Islamophobia for being too broad, arguing that it conflates legitimate criticism of Islam with anti-Muslim prejudice (Richardson, 2012). Others defend its use, noting that it highlights structural discrimination and provides a framework to address anti-Muslim racism (Allen, 2010).

References

  • Afshar, H., Aitken, R. & Franks, M. (2005). Islamophobia and women’s experiences: Reflections from two British cities. Sociological Review, 53(2), pp. 245–262.

  • Allen, C. (2010). Islamophobia. Farnham: Ashgate.

  • Cesari, J. (2004). When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europe and in the United States. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

  • Esposito, J. & Kalin, I. (2011). Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • Gottschalk, P. & Greenberg, G. (2008). Islamophobia: Making Muslims the Enemy. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.

  • Imtoual, A. (2006). ‘They don’t want us to practice our religion’: Muslims’ experiences of religious racism in South Australia. Australian Religion Studies Review, 19(2), pp. 133–149.

  • Meer, N. & Modood, T. (2009). Refutations of racism in the ‘Muslim question’. Patterns of Prejudice, 43(3-4), pp. 335–354.

  • Modood, T. (1997). Difference and Diversity: Muslims in Britain. In T. Modood & P. Werbner (eds.), Debating Cultural Hybridity. London: Zed Books, pp. 113–133.

  • Poynting, S. & Mason, V. (2007). The resistible rise of Islamophobia: Anti-Muslim racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001. Journal of Sociology, 43(1), pp. 61–86.

  • Richardson, J. (2012). Islamophobia and Anti-Muslim Racism: A Critique. In J. L. Esposito & I. Kalin (eds.), Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 139–158.

  • Runnymede Trust. (1997). Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All. London: Runnymede Trust.

  • Saeed, A. (2007). Media, racism and Islamophobia: The representation of Islam and Muslims in the media. Sociology Compass, 1(2), pp. 443–462.

  • Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. New York: Pantheon.